This year marks the United Nations International Year of Glass, sparking a surge of interest in glass art across China's museum community. First, the exhibition "Diverse Splendor: Glass Art in Ancient East-West Cultural Exchanges" debuted at Tsinghua University Art Museum, followed by "Silk Road Radiance — Ancient Glass Art from the Mediterranean to Chang'an," which recently opened at the Xi'an Museum.
　　Although the origins of Chinese glass were initially influenced by Western glassware and manufacturing techniques, few may know that domestically produced Chinese glass boasts a history spanning over 2,500 years. Known by names such as "Qiu Lin," "Liuli," and "Yao Yu," this ancient art form has evolved over time, developing its own unique elegance and charm—reflecting the profound inclusiveness and remarkable creativity inherent in Chinese civilization. As a result, it has become an integral part of China's outstanding traditional culture.
　　— Editor
　　Author: Xue Lü
　　Glass refers to an amorphous silicate compound crafted by firing quartz sand (SiO₂), fluxes, stabilizers, and colorants at high temperatures—it’s often hailed as the "art of fire and sand." Archaeological evidence indicates that glass originated in the Mesopotamian region more than 4,000 years ago. While Chinese-made glass has a relatively shorter history compared to Western glass, it still boasts over 2,500 years of tradition.
　　Glass was once one of the most expensive materials in the world, its value comparable to that of gold. Thanks to the endless variations in synthetic glass formulations, the wide array of shaping techniques, and the rich diversity of decorative styles, glass artifacts throughout history have taken on countless forms—each breathtakingly beautiful—and have even evolved into a distinct art form in their own right. Glass art carries with it a timeless tale of cultural exchange and mutual learning between Eastern and Western civilizations. Throughout China's various historical periods, the glass artifacts unearthed today continue to illuminate the profound significance of cross-cultural dialogue, while also showcasing the remarkable inclusiveness and extraordinary creativity that have long defined Chinese civilization.
　　Glass wall, mid-Warring States period to early Han Dynasty, dating approximately from 350 BCE to 150 BCE, collection of the Corning Museum of Glass, USA
　　In ancient China, the aesthetic perception of glass materials was closely linked to the culture that revered jade.
　　Glass in China is often referred to as a "foreign import," reflecting how people perceive this material as something exotic, imbued with the characteristics and cultural significance of East-West exchange. The origins of Chinese glass were initially shaped by Western glassware and manufacturing techniques—most notably, Western glass beads that entered China via the Silk Road during the late Spring and Autumn period and early Warring States period.
　　Chinese-made glass first appeared during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. Among the most well-preserved examples is the translucent, blue glass containing tiny air bubbles, found embedded in the sword of King Goujian of Yue (reigned from 496 to 464 BCE), excavated from Tomb No. 1 at Wangshan in Jiangling, Hubei Province. This piece is currently widely recognized as one of the earliest examples of ancient Chinese glass. Notably, the sword guard on both sides features not only glass inlays but also turquoise stones, collectively forming an exquisite decorative pattern. Analysis reveals that this glass contains measurable amounts of potassium and calcium, classifying it as an alkali-based glass. Archaeological evidence from this period further underscores that early Chinese glass held a status that may have rivaled even natural gems like turquoise—truly a rare and treasured artifact of immense value.
　　Ancient China had multiple terms for glass, each of which to varying degrees reveals the material's origins in ancient China as well as people's understanding of it. The earliest documented reference to glass may be found in the "Shangshu·Yugong" from the Warring States period, where the material is referred to as "qiu lin." Originally meaning "beautiful jade," the term "qiu lin" likely didn't yet have a distinct word specifically for glass at the time, so it was used instead to describe glass that resembled jade in appearance and quality.
　　After the Western Han Dynasty, the term "liuli" emerged, becoming the most widely used name in ancient China for man-made silica-based objects. Evidence suggests that this term was first independently introduced and employed as early as in Huan Kuan's *Yan Tie Lun* from the Western Han period: "…and bi jade, coral, and liuli are all treasures of the nation. This shows how foreign goods flow inward, ensuring wealth does not leak outward." By this time, glass materials had likely already begun to distinguish themselves from traditional materials like jade and coral, acquiring their own unique aesthetic appeal and cultural significance. Following Zhang Qian's diplomatic missions to the Western Regions, glassware produced by the Roman Empire (known as Daqin) began to flood into Central China in large quantities. As recorded in the *Book of Later Han: Biography of the Western Regions*: "Daqin is rich in gold, silver, and rare treasures, including luminous bi discs, radiant moon pearls, awe-inspiring kirin horns, exquisite corals, amber, liuli, langgan gems, cinnabar, and azure-green stones." Here, "liuli" clearly refers specifically to glass artifacts, and along with these imported glass items came the advanced Western technique of glassblowing—originally developed by artisans in the Roman world. The term "liuli" continued to be frequently used throughout the Sui and Tang dynasties. For instance, the *Biography of He Chou* in the *History of Sui* notes: "At that time, China had long ceased producing liuli, leaving craftsmen too afraid to even attempt it. Yet He Chou ingeniously crafted a piece using green porcelain, indistinguishable from the real thing. Soon afterward, he was promoted to the position of Assistant Cavalier-in-Waiting." Moreover, over 50 poems from the Tang dynasty that reference "liuli" reveal how Tang people revered this material as a symbol of clarity, purity, and beauty, holding it in the highest esteem. For example, the Tang poet Wei Yingwu penned in his poem *"Ode to Liuli"*: "Its color rivals cold ice, yet nothing can obscure its delicate jade-like transparency. Though hidden beneath ornate mats, it remains worthy of being paired with a graceful lady." Here, Wei Yingwu juxtaposes liuli with ice and jade, highlighting its mesmerizing elegance. Another notable example comes from the *Yehou Family Chronicles*, which recounts how Emperor Dezong of the Tang Dynasty summoned Li Bi to an audience after Lu Si-gong successfully pacified Lingnan. During the meeting, Li Bi presented a nine-inch-diameter liuli plate, declaring it "the greatest treasure under heaven." The term "liuli" has endured through modern times, and in certain regions, it remains in common usage today. For instance, in Boshan, Shandong Province (historically known as Yanshen Town), locals have consistently referred to their glass creations as "liuli" ever since the area began developing its thriving glass industry.
　　It's worth noting that during the Qing Dynasty, the term "liuli" was used to refer to glazed tiles and decorative elements on roof tiles in architecture. To distinguish it from this usage, when the Imperial Court established the Glass Workshop under the Zao Ban Chu in the 35th year of the Kangxi reign (1696), the term "glass" was adopted—thus solidifying the modern meaning of the word. Interestingly, the term "glass" itself first appeared during the Song Dynasty; for instance, Zhou Mi of the Southern Song Dynasty referred to domestically produced glass lamps as "liuli" in his work "Wulin Jiushi." Moreover, in the same book, specifically in Chapter 2 titled "Appreciating Flowers," he wrote: "…scattered among them were exquisite pieces such as polished jade, crystal vases, golden ewers, and large bottles crafted in the renowned glass kilns of Arabia." Therefore, the "glass" we use today actually has a history spanning nearly a thousand years.
　　In ancient China, glass was known by several alternative names. For instance, the "Mu Tianzi Zhuan," discovered during the Western Jin period, referred to glass as "Yao Yu"—literally "medicinal jade." Guo Pu, a scholar of the Jin Dynasty, noted in his commentary: "Today, objects cast by foreigners are also made from stone-like materials. Based on this description, it seems these must be akin to today's 'Yao Yu' or 'Yao Liu Li.'" Meanwhile, Ge Hong, writing during the Eastern Jin Dynasty, called glass "Shui Jing," stating: "Foreigners craft water-jade bowls by combining five types of ash during the firing process. Today, many regions in Jiaozhou and Guangzhou have mastered this technique and produce similar items." The term "Guan Yu" first appeared in the "Yuan Shi—Bai Guan Zhi," which records that the Yuan Dynasty established the Guan Yu Bureau—a court-appointed institution responsible for overseeing the production of glassware. Consequently, the glass crafted by this bureau came to be known as "Guan Yu." During the Ming Dynasty, Cao Zhao documented in his "Ge Gu Yao Lun": "Guan Zi Yu refers to a material refined using medicinal techniques from northern regions, then fired inside a ceramic vessel. If it lacks air bubbles, it closely resembles genuine jade." This reveals that, by the Ming period, glass was commonly referred to as "Guan Zi Yu." Moreover, during the Ming and Qing dynasties, it became popular to call glassware "Liao Qi," likely because regions like Beijing relied on purchasing raw glass materials from elsewhere before processing them into finished products. As a result, glass itself came to be known as "Liao."
　　As evident from these names, ancient China's aesthetic appreciation for glass materials was closely tied to its reverence for jade—a cultural tradition deeply rooted in the admiration of jadeite and other natural or semi-precious stones. Consequently, the primary purpose of crafting glass during that era was often to emulate the lustrous beauty of jade, as well as other natural gems or semi-precious stones. As a result, ancient glass pieces typically exhibited a warm, jade-like appearance, ranging from opaque or translucent shades of blue-green to pure white hues reminiscent of fine jade.
　　One of the pair of glass-bodied enamel-painted vases featuring floral, bird, poetic, calligraphic, and seal-inspired motifs, from the Qianlong period (1736–1795), held in the collection of the Corning Museum of Glass in the United States.
　　During the mid-to-late Warring States period, domestically produced dragonfly-eye glass beads pioneered a unique lead-barium glass system.
　　Early glass artifacts discovered in China were primarily beads, with one of the most significant styles now known as "dragonfly-eye glass beads." For instance, the 173 renowned dragonfly-eye glass beads unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng, dating back to the early Warring States period in Suizhou, Hubei Province, were identified through analysis as sodium-calcium glass. This discovery suggests that most of these beads were likely imported via trade from West Asia—glass at this time was valued on par with gold and jade.
　　By the mid-to-late Warring States period, domestically produced glass beads resembling "dragonfly eyes" became increasingly abundant. These beads not only incorporated the concentric-circle decorative motifs and stylistic elements from Western glass traditions but also integrated geometric patterns, giving rise to even richer designs and forms. Moreover, they marked the emergence of a unique lead-barium glass system—characterized by the use of lead oxide and barium oxide as flux agents—which was entirely distinctively Chinese in its characteristics, an innovation unprecedented in other ancient glass-making traditions worldwide. At the same time, these developments also led to the creation of several iconic local glass artifacts inspired by jade objects, such as glass bi discs and glass sword ornaments. Remarkably, these glass pieces were most commonly found clustered together in small tombs belonging to the mid-to-late Warring States-period Chu culture, centered around Changsha.
　　The Han Dynasty marked a crucial stage in the independent development of ancient Chinese glassmaking, building upon the tradition of lead-barium glass crafted during the Warring States period to imitate jade. During this period, significant innovations emerged in terms of formulas, production scale, and diverse forms. Among these, "funerary" glass—used as a substitute for burial jade—accounted for a substantial proportion. In the Western Han era, the practice of burying glass bi discs continued, but new forms also appeared, such as glass garments, glass plugs for the nine orifices, glass cicadas meant to be held in the mouth, and glass hand-held jade objects. Additionally, decorative glass elements like ear pendants, belt hooks, and glass inlays on ritual vessels began to adorn personal accessories and artifacts. This period also witnessed the emergence of glass containers, notably including the exquisite glass plate and glass wine cups excavated from the tomb of Liu Sheng, the Jingwang of Zhongshan, dating back to the Western Han Dynasty in Mancheng, Hebei Province. These pieces represent the earliest domestically produced glassware in China known to have been created using casting techniques—a groundbreaking archaeological discovery. Moreover, a new type of potassium glass, utilizing potassium oxide as a flux, emerged in the Guangxi region during this time. Thus, it is evident that by the Han Dynasty, China's glassmaking technology had reached remarkable maturity, giving rise to two major production centers: one centered in the Central Plains and the other rooted in Guangxi.
　　As early as the 5th century, China mastered the technique of glassblowing, which saw some development during the Sui and Tang dynasties.
　　During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties period, Chinese society experienced turmoil, causing the once-thriving lead-barium glass industry to gradually decline. Meanwhile, in the West, around the mid-1st century BCE, artisans invented the technique of blown glass— a milestone that would become one of the most significant milestones in the history of global glassmaking. By the Eastern Han Dynasty, related blown-glass artifacts had already made their way into China. Because the imported Roman and Iranian Sasanian glassware were exquisitely crafted and highly valued, they quickly became symbols of wealth and status, flaunted proudly by the ruling elite of the time. The translucent, crystal-clear quality of Roman blown glass was particularly coveted, earning high praise even from Pan Ni of the Western Jin Dynasty, who extolled it in his "Ode on the Glazed Bowl": "Drawing upon the radiant brilliance of琉璃, it reveals the unparalleled skill of master craftsmen across ages... Its purity rivals even the clearest frost, its clarity surpasses the purest flowing water..." However, based on current archaeological findings, it appears that China at this time had yet to fully master the technology required to establish its own indigenous blown-glass manufacturing industry.
　　The seven hand-blown glass artifacts—each shaped in traditional Chinese forms—unearthed from the Northern Wei-era pedestal casket in Ding County, Hebei (dated to 481 CE), clearly demonstrate that China had mastered glass-blowing technology as early as the 5th century at the latest. This achievement was likely a direct result of the eastward spread of Roman glass-blowing techniques. By the Sui and Tang dynasties, with the flourishing of Buddhism and the gradual establishment of the practice of enshrining relics, China’s indigenous glass-blowing industry experienced notable growth. As the most revered objects of devotion and symbols of divine power in Buddhism, relics were often displayed in delicate, translucent glass containers, allowing devotees to pay homage to their sacred remains. For instance, Bai Juyi vividly captured this tradition in his poem "Journey to Wuzhen Temple," describing a pair of white glass vials: "Two bottles of pure white glass, their hues as cold as autumn waters. Through the vessels, the relic gleams—round and radiant, like a golden elixir." This innovative method of layering stone boxes, bronze containers, gold coffins, silver casings, and glass vials to enshrine relics, as seen in the archaeological discoveries such as the Tang Dynasty Da Yun Temple Pagoda foundation site in Jingchuan, Gansu Province, not only vividly brings Bai Juyi’s poetic imagery to life but also underscores the unique status of glass—or rather, glazed pottery—as one of the "Seven Treasures" revered in Buddhist scriptures. Indeed, the use of glass artifacts in Buddhist rituals has endured through the ages, continuing well into modern times.
　　Glassware was already familiar in everyday life and residential furnishings during the Song Dynasty, yet it had not yet become mainstream.
　　Glassware began to emerge as a secular everyday item around the Song and Liao periods. Glass wine cups, bowls, and bottles—used as dining vessels—were prominently featured in grand occasions such as banquets and hospitality gatherings during the Song Dynasty, often adorning the elegant settings where scholar-officials gathered. For instance, in Hong Shi’s "Qianqiusui," specifically the poem titled "Presenting Birthday Gifts at the Marshal’s Residence," we read: "At the place of celebration, glasses carved from glass are filled with fragrant, golden liquor." Similarly, Zhou Mi of the Southern Song Dynasty, in his work "Qi Dong Ye Yu," recalled how his friend, known as Zixia Weng, would serve guests with glass vases holding vibrant Luohua flowers and pour them exquisite Yugang spring wine. Guests would engage in lively conversation late into the night, as if it were still yesterday. Moreover, the frequent depiction of glassware in Song-era paintings further underscores that glass had already become a familiar presence in daily life and home furnishings across all social classes during the Song Dynasty.
　　However, thanks to China's long-standing and exquisite porcelain-making techniques, Song Dynasty ceramics had already become everyday items in ordinary households. In contrast, glass was fragile and couldn’t withstand sudden temperature changes. Although the number of glass objects used in both Buddhist rituals and daily life increased significantly from the Song, Liao, to Yuan and Ming periods—giving rise to a diverse range of glass products such as animal figurines, fruit-shaped vessels, lamps, and hairpins—glass never truly evolved into a primary everyday utensil in ancient China. A remarkable set of exquisitely crafted sky-blue glass lotus-petal-shaped cup stands, unearthed from Tomb No. 20 of the Wang Shixian family in Zhang County, Gansu Province, exemplifies the pinnacle of Yuan Dynasty (officially commissioned) glass production. Meanwhile, Boshan in Shandong Province had already emerged as the center of China’s glassmaking industry since the Yuan Dynasty. By the Ming Dynasty, Boshan not only supplied glassware to the imperial court but also saw records of Boshan glass artisans employed at the Imperial Household Department’s Glass Workshop during the Qing Dynasty. Most notably, the discovery of an ancient glass production site dating back to the late Yuan and early Ming periods in Boshan marks the first time such a site has been identified in China, making it of immense historical significance. The artifacts recovered from this site—including glass furnaces, glass materials, and delicate glass ornaments like hairpins, beads, and rings—offer invaluable insights into China’s rich tradition of glass craftsmanship.
　　Glass artifacts crafted by Qing Dynasty glassmakers have left a significant mark on the history of global glassmaking.
　　A distinct feature in the development of global glass art is that every period of flourishing glass production has coincided with times of economic prosperity and cultural advancement—both nationally and regionally. Glass has consistently found its unique and creative expression within vibrant, multi-layered cultural contexts: from the golden age of ancient Egyptian civilization in the 3rd millennium BCE, to the Roman Empire that dominated the Eurasian continent during the early centuries AD, to Renaissance-era Venice in the 14th and 15th centuries—a time when the city was not only economically powerful but also at the heart of the artistic and intellectual rebirth—right up to the prosperous Qing Dynasty in 18th-century China. Each of these periods, without exception, witnessed a remarkable boom in glass art.
　　In the 35th year of the Kangxi reign (1696), the Imperial Workshops established a glass factory to the west of the Catholic Church at Canchi Port within the Imperial City. This factory was dedicated exclusively to crafting glass items for the royal family, including eyeglasses, as well as vessels such as bottles, bowls, cups, plates, jars, snuff boxes, water containers, pen holders, pen stands, and even exquisite objects like incense burners and snuff bottles—items essential for optical purposes, everyday use, decorative displays, ceremonial gifts, and religious rituals across various domains.
　　During the Kangxi period, Chinese glassware showcased key characteristics of Western blown glass—primarily featuring single colors, delicate yet transparent forms with fluid, graceful designs. After the Yongzheng era, there were far fewer pieces crafted in the crystal-clear transparency typical of earlier times; instead, artisans began to favor techniques like cutting, slicing, carving, and polishing to highlight the material's ability to mimic other substances. As a result, glass objects from this period exhibited simpler shapes, richer and more varied hues, and predominantly took on semi-transparent or opaque qualities. The Qianlong period marked the zenith of ancient Chinese glassmaking, witnessing both an expansion in production scale and a surge in innovative designs. Glass materials not only reached new heights in craftsmanship but also gained greater cultural and artistic value, ultimately giving rise to a distinct stylistic tradition.
　　The glassware crafted by the Imperial Workshops' Glass Factory (Glass Workshop) represents the pinnacle of Qing Dynasty glassmaking, embodying the era's highest artistic and technical achievements. Its flourishing was not only directly tied to the imperial court's patronage and the introduction of advanced techniques brought by Western missionaries who had come to China, but also deeply rooted in China's time-honored and robust tradition of craftsmanship and decorative arts. Ceramics, jade artifacts, bronzes, lacquerware, and other art forms continually inspired glassmakers with their rich diversity of shapes, hues, and decorative motifs. Against the backdrop of cultural and technological exchanges between East and West, the Qing Dynasty saw the emergence of innovative glass varieties, such as gemstone-red glass, star-glass, diamond-cut engraving techniques, and the groundbreaking development of enamel-on-glass painting. Moreover, pioneering advancements like glass-inlaid carving techniques were introduced, giving rise to a distinctly Chinese aesthetic that left an indelible mark on global glass history—and profoundly influenced generations to come.
　　Since the Qing Dynasty, glass has been integrated into architectural art thanks to its unique optical properties and aesthetic appeal.
　　In the minds of modern people, glass may be most commonly associated with windowpanes—yet these everyday glass windows were actually rare items in ancient times. In traditional Chinese architecture, whether official government buildings or private residences, windows were typically fitted with paper instead of glass. The earliest evidence of glass being used as a material for architectural doors and windows can be found in "Xijing Zaji," compiled by Ge Hong during the Eastern Jin Dynasty: "Zhao Feiyan’s younger sister lived in the Zhaoyang Hall… Her windows and doors were mostly adorned with green glazed glass, which not only let light flood in but also revealed every strand of hair, leaving nothing hidden." By the Tang Dynasty, "glass window panels" had already become established as a decorative element in imperial palaces. During the reign of Emperor Yizong of Tang, Wang Qi, who passed the imperial examination, was commissioned to compose a literary work titled "Ode to the Glazed Glass Window": "Among the most exquisite of all windows is one crafted from glazed glass—a material so translucent that it captures the clarity of autumn water, yet remains eerily luminous, blending seamlessly with the hazy hues of morning mist." Thus, in ancient times, glass was reserved exclusively for architectural decorations in imperial courts and among the elite, making it an exceedingly rare and luxurious material. To date, no records of glazed glass windows have been discovered in historical texts from the Five Dynasties or Song periods. It wasn’t until the Yuan Dynasty that Marco Polo, in his "Travels," described the palace architecture of the Yuan court, noting with admiration: "Even the glass installations on the windows were exquisitely crafted, resembling delicate crystals that seemed to breathe with the air itself."
　　Until the Qing Dynasty, glazed windows were widely used as architectural materials in the imperial palaces of the mid-Qing period. These windows often featured flat glass panes imported from Europe, courtesy of tributes received through the Canton Customs and contributions from high-ranking officials—glass that was not only exorbitantly expensive but also exceedingly rare. Records from the Imperial Household Department during the Kangxi era already noted that Changchun Garden had been fitted with glass decorations. By the Yongzheng period, flat glass began to appear in the Forbidden City, though initially it was installed only at the center of a single window, while the rest of the frame remained paper-covered—a practice known as "installing glass window eyes." Later on, another innovative method emerged: "fully installing glass, then breaking it into smaller pieces" to assemble larger, seamless panes, effectively replacing the traditional paper windows. It wasn’t until the mid-Qianlong era that fully glazed windows—where an entire pane of large, unbroken glass was embedded in each window—became commonplace. At this point, decorative techniques such as embedding painted glass panels into the wooden lattice partitions of doors and windows also started gaining popularity, further enhancing the aesthetic appeal of these architectural features. Moreover, Emperor Qianlong himself penned several exquisite poems praising the unique qualities of glazed windows. For instance, in his poem "Glass Windows," he wrote: "Glass suspended in carriage windows shields dust far better than gauzy curtains; Inside and out, clarity reigns, revealing every distant detail without flaw. It wards off chilly breezes yet warmly welcomes the sun’s gentle glow— Yet oddly enough, sound transmission proves surprisingly difficult, For voices seem muted, almost muffled, though the eyes clearly perceive. Indeed, clear vision is invaluable, yet sharp hearing may not always serve us well. Thus, practicality demands moderation, for even nature’s principles can guide our choices." From this perspective, since the Qing Dynasty, glass has not only re-entered the Chinese cultural landscape as everyday objects but has also seamlessly integrated into architectural artistry thanks to its remarkable optical properties and aesthetic versatility. In doing so, glass has profoundly influenced societal progress—both spiritually and materially—leaving an indelible mark on the evolution of Chinese civilization.